Assistant Professor University of Warsaw, Poland Warsaw, Poland
Background: This analysis addresses three key questions regarding the ethics of paying research participants. First, what is an ethical rationale for paying for research participation? Second, is there a moral obligation to pay, or is it merely ethically acceptable? Third, how do fundamental ethical principles shape the payment practice?
Methods: The paper takes a top-down approach and offers a systematic, principle-based ethical analysis of the practice of paying research participants. Conclusion: The argument put forth is that researchers have a prima facie moral obligation to offer payment to research subjects, which stems from the principle of social beneficence. This principle constitutes an ethical “spine” of the practice. Other ethical principles of research ethics (respect for autonomy, individual beneficence, and justice/fairness) make up an ethical “skeleton” of morally sound payment schemes by providing additional moral reasons for offering participants (1) recompense for reasonable expenses; and (2a) remuneration conceptualized as a reward for their valuable contribution, provided (i) it meets standards of equality, adequacy and non-exploitation, and (ii) it is not overly attractive (i.e., it does not constitute undue inducement for participation or retention, and does not encourage deceptive behaviors); or (2b) remuneration conceptualized as a market-driven price, provided (i) it is necessary and designed to help the study achieve its social and scientific goals, (ii) it does not reinforce wider social injustices and inequalities; (iii) it meets the requirement of non-exploitation; and (iv) it is not overly attractive. The principle of justice provides a strong ethical reason for not offering recompenses for lost wages (or loss of other reasonably expected profits).
Limitations: The paper presents a normative framework for ethical research payments. However, it does not provide a comprehensive analysis of the concepts of undue inducement or explanation, nor does it offer a detailed methodology for calculating an appropriate research payment.
Discussion: To make the proposed scheme fully helpful in determining whether any particular offer of payment is not overtly attractive and whether it meets standards of not equality, adequacy and non-exploitation, further detailed analyses of these standards are needed. The proposed scheme should also be tested against and enriched by further empirical studies about payment, especially about how money impacts subjects’ decision-making processes and behaviors.
